Existence is necessarily eternal and uncreated — why something instead of nothing

In this article, I will explore the philosophical argument that existence is necessarily eternal and uncreated. By examining the concepts of existence and non-existence, the self-contained nature of existence, and the principle of energy conservation, I aim to demonstrate why existence must always have been and will always be.

Table of Contents

• 1. The Conceptual Impossibility of Non-Existence
• 2. The Self-Contained Nature of Existence
• 3. The Perpetual Nature of Energy and Its Implications for Existence
• 4. Why the Cosmos Must Necessarily Be Infinite in Extension and Complexity
• 5. The Eternal Transformation of Energy and Matter
• Appendix A: The Impossibility of Complete Cosmic Heat Death in an Infinite, Eternal Universe
• Appendix B: aBout the Big-Bang Being a Beginning.
• Appendix C: Reconciling Isolation and Openness in an Infinite, Eternal Cosmos

1. The Conceptual Impossibility of Non-Existence

This first argument hinges on the Law of Identity (A = A) and the Law of Non-Contradiction (A ≠ Not A), which are central tenets of classical logic. Non-existence (Not A) cannot exist, because if it did, it would cease to be “non-existence” and would instead become existence (A). This would violate the Law of Non-Contradiction, as existence and non-existence cannot be the same.

The conclusion — that existence is necessary and eternal — rests on the assertion that non-existence is logically impossible. Therefore, existence cannot ever “not be.” The implication is that the state of “existence” is the only logically coherent reality, one that is everlasting and uncaused.

“Non-existence” refers to the complete absence or negation of being. It is the state where nothing exists, devoid of any entity or presence. In contrast, “existence” denotes the state of being, where entities and phenomena are present.

If we attempt to conceive of non-existence itself as existing, we encounter a fundamental contradiction. By definition, non-existence is the absence of existence. Therefore, if non-existence were to exist, it would no longer be non-existence; it would instead be a form of existence. This self-contradiction renders the notion of non-existence incoherent.

Non-existence cannot exist because it would negate its own definition. If non-existence existed, it would paradoxically become a state of being, thus ceasing to be non-existence. This contradiction underscores the conceptual impossibility of non-existence. The very notion of non-existence undermines itself, akin to trying to define something that inherently negates its own reality.

Since non-existence cannot exist, it logically follows that there can be no state of non-existence preceding or initiating existence. Existence cannot emerge from non-existence because non-existence, being a logical impossibility, cannot be a precursor to anything. Therefore, the idea that existence could be caused or sourced by non-existence is untenable.

The absence of a preceding state of non-existence supports the proposition that existence is necessary and eternal. If existence were contingent upon non-existence, we would face the insurmountable problem of explaining what could have caused non-existence itself. However, since non-existence is conceptually impossible, there is no basis for asserting that existence originated from non-existence.

Thus, the fact that non-existence cannot exist proves that existence has necessarily always existed and will always exist. This conclusion affirms that existence is an inherent and eternal aspect of reality. It does not rely on a preceding state of non-existence but stands as a self-contained and self-sustained reality, independent of any external causes or sources. Existence, as such, is the ultimate reality that requires no further explanation beyond itself.

2. The Self-Contained Nature of Existence

This second argument demonstrates that existence itself cannot have a cause based on the principles of logic and causality.

Premise 1: Any cause (C) must be part of existence (A):
∀C (Cause(C,X)→C⊆A)
This means that for any cause C, in order for it to be capable of causing something (X), it must exist, which is to be a part of A (existence).

Premise 2: A part (Ab) cannot be the cause of the whole (A):
∀Ab (Ab⊆A→¬Cause(Ab,A))
This says that if something (Ab) is a part of existence, it cannot be the cause of existence as a whole.

Conclusion: No cause can cause existence:
¬∃C (Cause(C,A))
This follows logically: since every cause must be part of existence, and no part of existence can cause the whole, it is impossible for there to be a cause of existence itself.

When we discuss the concept of a cause or source, we are referring to an agent or factor that initiates or brings about a particular effect or outcome. Typically, a cause precedes its effect and is separate from the effect itself. However, when considering the cause or source of existence, this standard notion encounters a significant problem.

Existence, by definition, includes everything that is real and has being. It encompasses all entities, phenomena, and reality itself. If we propose that existence has a cause or source, we must recognize that this cause or source cannot be external to existence. If it were, it would imply the existence of something beyond existence, which is a logical contradiction. There is no “outside” of existence, as existence encompasses all that is.

Therefore, if existence had a cause or source, that cause or source must necessarily be a part of existence. It would be an intrinsic component within the broader framework of existence itself. This leads us to conclude that existence does not have an external cause or source; rather, it is self-contained.

From this understanding, we arrive at the proposition that existence itself must be uncaused and uncreated. Since any potential cause or source of existence would have to exist within existence, existence does not require an external cause or source to bring it into being. It is an inherent and eternal aspect of reality, standing as a self-sustaining entity independent of any external influences.

Recognizing that the cause or source of existence is inseparable from existence itself leads us to conclude that existence is necessarily uncaused and uncreated. It is not contingent upon anything external to grant it life or bring it into being. Instead, existence inherently and eternally exists, without the need for a preceding cause or source. This self-contained nature underscores the fundamental reality that existence, as the ultimate reality, requires no external justification or origin.

3. The Perpetual Nature of Energy and Its Implications for Existence

This third argument draws from the First Law of Thermodynamics to support the idea that existence is eternal and uncreated.

Premise 1:
Nothing can exist outside of existence; therefore, existence is an isolated system.
This premise suggests that existence is complete in itself, with no external influences or causes. Everything that exists must be part of this system, which cannot interact with anything outside of itself (because nothing exists outside of existence).

Premise 2:
The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only altered in form, within an isolated system.
The law applies to the concept of energy within the universe, indicating that energy is eternal and cannot be created or destroyed.

Conclusion:
Since energy is part of existence and is eternal and uncreated, it follows that existence as a whole is also eternal and uncreated.
Energy, being an integral part of existence, must follow the same principle. If energy cannot be created or destroyed in an isolated system, then existence itself must be similarly eternal and uncreated, as it encompasses all that exists, including energy.

The principle of the conservation of energy states that in an isolated system, energy is neither created nor destroyed but only transformed from one form to another. This principle is fundamental in physics and underscores the immutable and perpetual nature of energy.

Existence can be understood as the comprehensive framework within which all reality manifests. It encompasses everything that exists, including energy, matter, space, time, and all other fundamental aspects of the universe. This framework is the foundation upon which the entire fabric of reality is constructed. Therefore, existence is an isolated system because it encompasses all that is real and leaves no room for anything outside of it.

One of the fundamental components of existence is energy. Energy permeates the universe and manifests in various forms, such as kinetic energy, potential energy, and electromagnetic energy. It is a fundamental building block that underlies the workings of the physical world.

The principle of energy conservation highlights that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed. This perpetual nature of energy indicates that it has always existed and will always exist. Since energy is a fundamental aspect of existence, it follows that existence, like energy, cannot be created or destroyed.

Given that energy is an eternal aspect of existence, we can infer that existence itself is not contingent upon any external factors or events that initiate or terminate its being. Existence is an inherent and self-sustaining reality. It is not something that could have been brought into being by external causes or factors, nor can it be terminated or diminished by them.

The eternal nature of energy reflects the inherent characteristic of existence as an uncaused and uncreated reality. By understanding the perpetual nature of energy and its inseparable connection to the broader framework of existence, we can comprehend why existence, too, possesses an eternal nature. Existence is not bound by a specific point of origin or a predetermined endpoint. Instead, it transcends notions of causality and temporality, standing as an ultimate and eternal reality. This understanding reinforces the idea that existence, like energy, is self-contained and perpetual, requiring no external cause or source.

4. Why the Cosmos Must Necessarily Be Infinite in Extension and Complexity

The concept of an infinite cosmos — both in its spatial extent and in the complexity of its configurations — is not merely a speculative notion. Rather, it emerges from a confluence of logical reasoning, philosophical considerations, and scientific insights. By examining the impossibility of non-existence, exploring the implications of cosmic geometry and inflation, and considering scenarios that allow infinite variance, we move toward a comprehensive understanding of why the universe must be boundless and perpetually creative.

1. The Logical Necessity of Infinite Existence

Impossibility of Non-Existence
The foundation of the argument rests on the logical incoherence of non-existence. To posit non-existence as a state that could “be” is to immediately contradict the Law of Non-Contradiction, which holds that something cannot both exist and not exist simultaneously.¹ Non-existence, if taken literally, would become a form of existence, thus negating its own definition. Consequently, existence emerges as the only logically consistent state.

From this reasoning, we extend to space. If existence were spatially finite, it would have a boundary. Beyond this boundary, there must be either something or nothing. Should there be something, the boundary ceases to be a true limit. Should there be nothing, we re-encounter the contradiction of non-existence. This leaves only one logical conclusion: existence must extend infinitely in all directions.²

Existence, understood as necessary and uncaused, cannot depend on external conditions or limits. A finite universe would imply some external state — an impossibility given that “outside” existence would constitute a form of non-existence. Thus, eternity and boundlessness follow naturally: existence must be both temporally eternal and spatially infinite.³

2. Scientific Perspectives on an Infinite Cosmos

Although direct empirical confirmation of an infinite universe remains out of reach, modern cosmology provides robust indications that the universe may well be unbounded.

The theory of cosmic inflation posits an exponential expansion in the universe’s earliest moments, flattening its geometry.⁴ Observations from missions like Planck and WMAP show the universe to be nearly geometrically flat, meaning its curvature is extremely close to zero.⁵ In a flat or nearly flat geometry, spatial infinity becomes a plausible solution; a curved, finite universe is less likely. The observed flatness thus strongly suggests an infinitely extending cosmic expanse.⁶

At sufficiently large scales, the universe appears homogeneous and isotropic.⁷ This uniformity, predicted by the cosmological principle, aligns with the notion of an infinite cosmos: over vast distances, matter and energy would be distributed in patterns that do not terminate abruptly, reinforcing the plausibility of unbounded space.

Quantum cosmological models introduce further possibilities. Eternal inflation, for example, envisions an unending production of “bubble universes” within an overarching multiverse structure.⁸ Each bubble might possess its own laws, constants, and initial conditions. This expansion of the cosmic stage suggests not only spatial infinity but also infinite diversity, embedding our observable region within a larger, boundless reality.⁹

Even advanced theories like the holographic principle, which treats the universe as a projection of underlying information, struggle to impose a fundamental limit on existence.¹⁰ Any finite model raises the question: what lies beyond? Such inquiries push us inexorably toward a vision of infinite extension, where no absolute boundary can hold.

3. Consequences of an Infinite Cosmos

In an infinite universe with uniform large-scale properties, the total amount of matter and energy must also be infinite.¹¹ This scenario suggests boundless numbers of galaxies, stars, and even planetary systems, expanding the arena of cosmic phenomena beyond any finite tally. Traditional thermodynamic endpoints, like heat death, become more nuanced in an unending space where localized increases in entropy do not necessarily dictate a global end-state.¹²

An infinite cosmos implies endless cycles of birth and death for stars, planetary systems, and perhaps life itself. Material is continuously recycled, aligning with philosophical visions of perpetual renewal and transformation.¹³ The universe is not a static tableau but an evolving tapestry, woven from countless, ever-changing threads.

4. Infinite Variance: Avoiding Repetition

A universe that is merely infinite in size but finite in the variety of its configurations would eventually yield repetition, as finite possibilities recur an infinite number of times. This could lead to exact replicas of our own observable structures, including hypothetical “copies” of ourselves. However, an even richer conception emerges when we consider infinite variance — an unbounded spectrum of possibilities where no arrangement ever repeats identically.

Theories such as the multiverse concept, supported by string theory landscapes and eternal inflation, hint that varying physical laws, constants, and initial conditions might lead to a universe (or ensemble of universes) with inexhaustible complexity and uniqueness.¹⁴ This echoes the mathematical work of Cantor, who showed that infinities come in different sizes and complexities.¹⁵ Where a simple infinite set might yield repetition, a more complex form of infinity surpasses such limitations, ensuring continual novelty.¹⁶

In a cosmos of infinite variance, no precise replica of our galaxy or Earth need ever arise. Instead, every region of space-time could differ fundamentally, reflecting an unending creative principle. This picture challenges deterministic or reductive views of the cosmos, portraying it instead as a realm of perpetual innovation.

Confirming infinite variance empirically is impossible, given the finite horizon of observation. Nonetheless, the visible universe’s rich complexity hints that the universe may not be constrained to a finite set of patterns. Theoretical physics, informed by both cosmological data and philosophical rigor, can at least accommodate and describe such an infinite, ever-diverging reality. Similarly, thermodynamic principles — often discussed in finite terms — would require rethinking in an endlessly diverse, ever-evolving cosmic environment.

5. Philosophical Dimensions of Infinite Complexity

An infinitely varied universe establishes uniqueness as a fundamental cosmic principle. Rather than a closed loop of repetitive patterns, existence becomes an open-ended exploration of possibilities, each distinct and incomparable.

In place of endless cycles that repeat the same structures, infinite complexity allows for infinite creativity. This aligns with philosophical perspectives that celebrate difference, transformation, and the ongoing process of becoming. It invites new inquiries into identity, consciousness, and meaning within a world that never settles into a stable pattern.

The case for an infinite cosmos arises from both logical necessity and scientific plausibility. By rejecting the notion of non-existence, we logically infer that existence must be unbounded. Modern cosmology, with its emphasis on flat geometry, large-scale homogeneity, and the potential for multiverses, reinforces this view. Pushing beyond mere spatial infinity, the idea of infinite variance suggests a universe not merely without spatial limits but also without limits on the forms and configurations matter and energy may take. In such a reality, the cosmos is an eternal, evolving, and infinitely creative tapestry, defying any final boundaries of comprehension.

References

1. Aristotle, Metaphysics, trans. Hugh Lawson-Tancred (Penguin 1998).
2. Craig, W. L., The Kalam Cosmological Argument (Macmillan 1979).
3. Rescher, N., The Riddle of Existence (University of Pittsburgh Press 1984).
4. Guth, A. H., ‘Inflationary Universe: A Possible Solution to the Horizon and Flatness Problems’, (1981) Physical Review D, 23(2), pp. 347–356.
5. Planck Collaboration, ‘Planck 2018 Results: Cosmological Parameters’, (2018) Astronomy & Astrophysics, 641, A6.
6. Peebles, P. J. E., Principles of Physical Cosmology (Princeton University Press 1993).
7. Weinberg, S., Cosmology (Oxford University Press 2008).
8. Linde, A., ‘Eternal Chaotic Inflation’, (1986) Modern Physics Letters A, 1(2), pp. 81–85.
9. Tegmark, M., Our Mathematical Universe (Knopf 2014).
10. Susskind, L., The Black Hole War: My Battle with Stephen Hawking to Make the World Safe for Quantum Mechanics (Little, Brown 2008).
11. Greene, B., The Fabric of the Cosmos (Penguin 2004).
12. Dyson, F., ‘Time Without End: Physics and Biology in an Open Universe’, (1979) Reviews of Modern Physics, 51(3), pp. 447–460.
13. Penrose, R., Cycles of Time: An Extraordinary New View of the Universe (Bodley Head 2010).
14. Vilenkin, A., Many Worlds in One: The Search for Other Universes (Hill and Wang 2006).
15. Cantor, G., Contributions to the Founding of the Theory of Transfinite Numbers (Open Court 1915).
16. Barrow, J. D., The Infinite Book: A Short Guide to the Boundless, Timeless, and Endless (Vintage 2005).

5: The Eternal Transformation of Energy and Matter

In an eternal universe, transformation emerges as the fundamental principle governing both matter and energy. Rather than conceiving the cosmos as a static configuration of particles, it is more accurate to envision it as an ever-evolving tapestry, wherein all entities — no matter how stable or enduring they may seem — undergo perpetual change. This perspective aligns with the broader argument presented throughout this work: that existence is necessarily eternal, uncreated, and without ultimate boundaries.

From stars forging heavier elements in their cores, to supernovae dispersing these elements back into the cosmic medium, and even to potential proton decay over unfathomably long timescales, the cosmos continually recycles and reconfigures its constituents. Matter and energy, though never created or destroyed, find themselves in a state of unending dynamism. By reflecting upon this eternal cycle of transformation, we gain a deeper appreciation for the nature of existence itself: not as a singular moment of creation, but as a limitless and ongoing process of renewal and becoming.

1. Energy and Matter as Perpetually Intertwined
   Energy and matter are intimately linked, each a manifestation of the other in various phases of transformation.¹ While matter may appear stable, over sufficiently vast timescales, even the most resilient atomic structures undergo alteration. Stellar nucleosynthesis demonstrates this vividly: simpler elements are transmuted into heavier ones in the cores of stars.² As these stars reach the ends of their lifespans, cataclysmic events such as supernovae scatter the products of their nuclear alchemy back into the cosmos, seeding future generations of stars, planets, and potentially life itself.³
2. The Temporality of Form and the Eternity of Change
   Although atoms and molecules can persist for immense durations, their form is never guaranteed to remain fixed. In the crucible of the cosmos, even the heaviest elements may be torn apart, rearranged, or transformed into exotic states under extreme conditions.⁴ Moreover, various theoretical frameworks, such as Loop Quantum Cosmology, suggest that what we now perceive as stable structures could be subject to more profound transformations over infinite intervals of time, challenging the notion of a permanent material foundation.⁵ Similarly, Penrose’s Conformal Cyclic Cosmology envisions an endless sequence of aeons, each giving rise to the next through an ultimate recycling of matter and energy.⁶
3. Potential Limits to Stability and the Horizon of Infinite Time
   The hypothesis of proton decay, while not yet observed, exemplifies how even the most basic constituents of matter might not be exempt from change over extremely long cosmological timescales.⁷ If confirmed, it would reinforce the idea that no known form of matter is truly immutable, further validating the claim that existence is characterized by unceasing dynamism rather than static permanence.
4. Cosmic Recycling as an Eternal Principle
   The eternal transformation of matter and energy aligns with the philosophical principles discussed earlier. Just as non-existence is logically incoherent, a universe without transformation would stagnate and undermine the principle of eternal existence itself. Instead, the cosmos perpetually recycles its contents. The atoms composing our bodies at this moment may one day be drawn into a star, scattered into interstellar dust, or become part of new living organisms in distant galaxies.⁸ Over infinite time, every configuration inevitably gives way to another, mirroring the broader metaphysical claim that existence is unbounded and continuously unfolding.
5. Integration with Previous Arguments
   This eternal cycle of transformation complements and supports the main arguments of this article. It illustrates that the universe’s eternal nature is not a static quality but a dynamic condition, characterized by endless flux.⁹ By appreciating the ceaseless metamorphosis of matter and energy, we affirm that existence does not merely endure, but thrives through perpetual renewal and reconfiguration.

In this way, the dynamic transformations we observe in matter and energy become living metaphors for the concept of eternal existence. They underscore that permanence is not defined by an absence of change, but by the continuity of underlying reality. The eternal cosmos is not an unmoving monument to being, but a boundless and ongoing performance, forever unfolding in the absence of any external cause or terminus.

The concept of non-existence is inherently contradictory and logically impossible, as non-existence itself would paradoxically require existence to exist. This contradiction underscores that non-existence cannot precede or initiate existence. Consequently, existence must be eternal, having always existed and continuing to exist without end.

Furthermore, any cause or source of existence must necessarily be part of existence itself, leading to the conclusion that existence is uncaused and uncreated. Existence is self-contained and self-sustaining, independent of any external factors or events. This intrinsic nature highlights its fundamental characteristic as an ultimate reality.

The principle of energy conservation further reinforces this understanding. Energy, a fundamental aspect of existence, is neither created nor destroyed but only transformed. This perpetual existence of energy mirrors the eternal nature of existence as a whole.

In summary, existence is an ultimate, eternal reality that transcends the notions of causality and temporality. It is a self-contained and self-sustained entity, uncaused and uncreated, requiring no external justification or origin. This comprehensive framework affirms that existence, in its entirety, is the foundational bedrock of all that is real, perpetually existing beyond the dichotomy of something and nothing.

References

1. Feynman, R. P., Leighton, R. B. and Sands, M., The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol. I, (Addison-Wesley 1963) ch 4.
2. Carroll, B. W. and Ostlie, D. A., An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics, 2nd edn (Pearson Addison-Wesley 2007) pp. 389–423.
3. Woosley, S. E., Heger, A. and Weaver, T. A., ‘The Evolution and Explosion of Massive Stars’ (2002) Rev Mod Phys, 74(4), pp. 1015–1071.
4. Kippenhahn, R. and Weigert, A., Stellar Structure and Evolution, (Springer 1990) pp. 360–380.
5. Bojowald, M., Once Before Time: A Whole Story of the Universe, (Knopf 2010).
6. Penrose, R., Cycles of Time: An Extraordinary New View of the Universe, (Bodley Head 2010).
7. Beringer, J. et al. (Particle Data Group), ‘Review of Particle Physics’ (2012) Phys Rev D, 86, 010001.
8. Davies, P. C. W., The Goldilocks Enigma: Why Is the Universe Just Right for Life?, (Penguin 2008) pp. 165–178.
9. Montes Navarro, S., ‘Changism 3: Timeless Eternal Change’, in Changism 3: Timeless Eternal Change (2023) https://sergio-montes-navarro.medium.com/changism-3-timeless-eternal-change-b87ef0e2780b accessed 8 December 2024.

The tension between the universe being deterministically governed by an eternal web of causality and its simultaneous characterization as uncaused, infinite, and eternal introduces a profound philosophical and metaphysical paradox. This dual nature — causally determined in its parts yet ultimately self-determined as a whole — reframes our understanding of determinism in such a cosmos. Let us explore the reasoning behind this view and its nuanced consequences.

6. Determinism in an Infinite Cosmos?

An infinite and eternal cosmos is uncaused because causality itself is a relation that applies within the framework of existence. For something to have a cause, it must exist within a context where causality operates — cause and effect require a pre-existing substrate or system. However, the cosmos as a whole is not contingent on any external framework because there is no “outside” to the cosmos. It encompasses all that exists, rendering it uncaused and self-existent.¹

• Eternal Existence: A beginning would imply an external cause or trigger for the cosmos, but in an infinite and eternal cosmos, there is no temporal point at which existence was “initiated.” It has always been.
• Infinite Nature: A finite entity might require an external boundary or framework to define its extent. In contrast, an infinite cosmos has no such boundary, meaning its existence cannot be predicated on anything beyond itself.²

Because the universe is uncaused and infinite, it is ultimately self-determined. The “laws” of the cosmos — physical, mathematical, or otherwise — emerge from its intrinsic nature rather than being imposed externally. Thus, causality is not something that precedes the universe; it is a principle that operates within the cosmos, contingent on its own self-existing structure.

2. Determinism in a Causally Determined Universe

Determinism arises from the interconnected web of causality within the cosmos. Every event, process, or phenomenon is the result of preceding conditions and governed by physical laws. In this sense:

• The local dynamics of the universe appear deterministic, with each change following inevitably from prior states.³
• Observable phenomena, such as planetary motion or chemical reactions, provide strong empirical evidence for deterministic principles at play within the cosmos.

However, while causality governs the relationships between phenomena within the cosmos, it does not govern the cosmos as a whole. The universe itself is not subject to causality because there is no external “cause” that could have generated or influenced it. This makes the cosmos as a whole a self-determined entity, distinct from the deterministic processes occurring within it.

3. Can We Speak of Determinism in an Infinite Cosmos?

The infinite and eternal nature of the cosmos fundamentally complicates the concept of determinism when applied universally. While determinism may govern specific parts or regions of the cosmos, its infinite scale and eternal duration render certain assumptions of classical determinism problematic.

In an infinite cosmos, there may exist an inexhaustible range of states, configurations, and processes:

• Emergent Phenomena: On large scales, new structures and patterns can arise unpredictably from complex systems, challenging deterministic predictability.⁴
• Quantum Uncertainty: Quantum mechanics introduces indeterminacy at fundamental levels, suggesting that not all processes are strictly determined, even if they are probabilistically constrained.

Classical determinism often presumes a fixed initial condition from which all subsequent events follow. In an eternal universe:

• There is no singular “beginning” to serve as an initial state.
• Without a fixed starting point, causality lacks an anchor from which to extrapolate a universal deterministic trajectory.

In an infinite temporal framework:

• Deterministic systems may eventually produce outcomes that appear random or chaotic due to their sensitivity to initial conditions (as seen in chaos theory).
• Over infinite time, even rare fluctuations or low-probability events become inevitable, undermining deterministic predictability.

4. Consequences for the Concept of Determinism

In an infinite and eternal cosmos, determinism can be understood as a contextual principle:

• Local Determinism: Deterministic laws govern specific processes and regions, providing predictability within finite domains.
• Global Indeterminacy: On the cosmic scale, the absence of boundaries, infinite complexity, and emergent phenomena preclude deterministic predictability.

The universe’s self-determined nature implies that the principles of causality and determinism are emergent properties of the cosmos rather than imposed absolutes. This shifts the focus from determinism as a universal rule to determinism as a characteristic of particular systems within the cosmos.

If determinism is contextual, then questions about free will and agency gain new dimensions:

• In a deterministic system, free will is often viewed as illusory, a byproduct of underlying causal chains.
• However, in an infinite and self-determined cosmos, agency may arise as an emergent phenomenon, not reducible to deterministic or indeterministic mechanics alone.⁵
• Classical determinism implies that the universe’s “end” could theoretically be calculated from its initial conditions.
• In an infinite and eternal cosmos, there is no “end” to predict, and the unfolding of events cannot be fully described by finite causal chains.

5. Determinism in an Infinite Cosmos

The infinite and eternal cosmos challenges conventional notions of determinism. While changes within the universe may be causally determined, the universe as a whole is uncaused and self-determined, existing outside the framework of external causality. Determinism, therefore, applies locally but loses its universality in the face of infinite complexity, emergent phenomena, and the absence of an initial condition. Rather than a closed deterministic machine, the cosmos reveals itself as a boundless, evolving reality where causality and self-determination coexist, enriching our understanding of existence and the principles that govern it.

1. Craig, W. L., The Kalam Cosmological Argument (Macmillan 1979).
2. Rescher, N., The Riddle of Existence (University of Pittsburgh Press 1984).
3. Laplace, P. S., Philosophical Essay on Probabilities (Springer 1995).
4. Prigogine, I., From Being to Becoming: Time and Complexity in the Physical Sciences (Freeman 1980).
5. Dennett, D. C., Freedom Evolves (Penguin 2004).
6. Rovelli, C., The Order of Time (Riverhead Books 2018).

Appendix A: The Impossibility of Complete Cosmic Heat Death in an Infinite, Eternal Universe

The classical notion of a universal “heat death” emerges from the second law of thermodynamics, which states that entropy — or disorder — tends to increase in a closed system over time, ultimately leading to a state of maximum entropy where no energy gradients remain. In such a hypothetical end-state, the universe would be devoid of processes capable of sustaining complexity or life, becoming cold, dark, and lifeless. Yet this traditional perspective is grounded in assumptions of finitude and closure. When we consider an infinite, eternal universe, these assumptions break down, and the inevitability of complete heat death becomes untenable.

1. Entropy in an Infinite Universe

The second law of thermodynamics applies strictly to closed systems, and its global implications are less clear in an infinite context.¹ An infinite universe lacks external boundaries and may not be meaningfully described as a closed system. Without a universal “outside” to define total energy distribution, entropy increases remain localized rather than universal. Regions of high entropy can coexist indefinitely with areas that are far from equilibrium, preventing the cosmos as a whole from settling into a single, uniform state of maximum entropy.

In a universe that extends infinitely, no finite region’s entropy profile dictates the cosmic future. While some domains may approach local equilibrium, others remain in states conducive to star formation, galaxy evolution, and energy flow for arbitrarily long timescales.² Because there is no overarching boundary, these distant and disparate regions ensure that the overall cosmos never converges upon a singular thermodynamic endpoint.

Quantum fluctuations, gravitational clumping, and ongoing astrophysical processes ensure that perfect homogeneity — a prerequisite for a universal heat death — never fully materializes.³ Variations in density, temperature, and gravitational potential prevent the universe from lapsing into absolute uniformity. This persistent non-uniformity guarantees the perpetual existence of gradients and sources of energy conversion.

2. The Role of Self-Organization

Increases in entropy do not preclude the emergence of ordered structures. Localized systems can decrease their entropy by exporting disorder to their surroundings, giving rise to stars, planets, biological life, and other pockets of complexity.⁴ In an infinite setting, this process has no final constraint, as each region can draw upon energy and matter from virtually inexhaustible reservoirs.

Astrophysical objects — such as black holes, neutron stars, and active galactic nuclei — act as cosmic engines, continually generating entropy gradients and enabling energy flows.⁵ Even as some systems wind down, others come into being, ensuring that overall cosmic activity never ceases. In an eternal, infinite universe, these cycles of creation, consumption, and transformation defy the notion of a final thermodynamic equilibrium.

Processes like Hawking radiation, where black holes gradually evaporate over immense timescales, recycle high-entropy states into radiation that can trigger new processes of structure formation.⁶ In an infinite temporal expanse, rare events, fluctuations, and rearrangements can always rekindle complexity, ensuring that no final, static heat death can take hold universally.

3. The Implications of Eternal Time

Given infinite time, even systems in quasi-equilibrium are subject to statistical fluctuations that may reintroduce gradients and complex phenomena.⁷ The vast temporal canvas allows for endless cycles of emergence and dissolution, challenging the idea that entropy must monotonically increase to a final, terminal state.

Alternative cosmological models, such as Conformal Cyclic Cosmology (CCC), propose that the universe undergoes repeated cycles of low-entropy resets.⁸ In such frameworks, what might appear as an asymptotic heat death in one aeon becomes the low-entropy beginning of the next. These cycles highlight that entropy’s trajectory may be more intricate than the linear path toward universal equilibrium once envisioned.

The quantum vacuum itself can spawn fluctuations and virtual particles, continually creating opportunities for energy differentials to arise.⁹ Such phenomena undermine the notion of a cosmic standstill by ensuring that even the emptiest regions retain the potential for new dynamics.

4. The Eternal Dynamism of an Infinite Cosmos

In a finite universe, heat death might represent the inevitable conclusion of thermodynamic processes. In an infinite and eternal cosmos, however, there are no boundaries or absolute endpoints. Equilibrium, if attained locally, remains confined to particular domains, never characterizing the entire universe.

Quantum and thermodynamic fluctuations — ever-present across infinite space and time — guarantee ongoing episodes of order amid the background drift toward entropy. These fluctuations act like cosmic “stirrings,” preventing the universe from settling into a monolithic state of inert uniformity.

Rather than a one-way march toward stasis, entropy in an infinite universe is a dynamic, evolutionary concept. The interplay of localized increases and decreases, combined with infinite spatial and temporal resources, keeps the cosmos in perpetual motion and transformation.

5. A Universe Beyond Heat Death

The classical notion of cosmic heat death relies on a finite, closed system model and assumes that entropy must approach a universal maximum. Yet in an infinite, eternal universe, these underpinnings fall away. The capacity for ongoing self-organization, the presence of unending fluctuations, and the absence of any final boundary condition ensure that no static, terminal state of maximal entropy can be globally imposed. Instead, the universe remains an endless story of change, complexity, and creative processes — forever eluding the silence and finality once envisioned as cosmic heat death.

References

1. Carroll, S., From Eternity to Here: The Quest for the Ultimate Theory of Time (Oneworld 2010).
2. Dyson, F., ‘Time Without End: Physics and Biology in an Open Universe’, (1979) Reviews of Modern Physics, 51(3), pp. 447–460.
3. Penrose, R., Cycles of Time: An Extraordinary New View of the Universe (Bodley Head 2010).
4. Prigogine, I., From Being to Becoming: Time and Complexity in the Physical Sciences (Freeman 1980).
5. Rees, M., Just Six Numbers: The Deep Forces That Shape the Universe (Basic Books 2000).
6. Hawking, S. W., ‘Black hole explosions?’ (1974) Nature, 248, pp. 30–31.
7. Boltzmann, L., ‘On the Relationship Between the Second Law of Thermodynamics and Probability Calculus’, (1895) Proceedings of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Vienna.
8. Gurzadyan, V. G. and Penrose, R., ‘Concentric circles in WMAP data may provide evidence of violent pre-Big-Bang activity’ (2010) arXiv:1011.3706 [astro-ph.CO].
9. Susskind, L., The Black Hole War: My Battle with Stephen Hawking to Make the World Safe for Quantum Mechanics (Little, Brown 2008).

Appendix B: aBout the Big-Bang Being a Beginning.

Modern cosmology has long framed the Big Bang as the origin of our observable universe, yet recent theoretical developments and observational puzzles have prompted researchers to reconsider whether the Big Bang truly represents a beginning or merely one phase in an eternal cosmic process.¹ The field is now exploring a range of alternative models that challenge singularity-driven narratives, drawing on quantum gravity approaches, non-singular cosmological frameworks, and new mathematical tools to grapple with the nature of an infinite universe.²

While the standard cosmological model, supported by a majority of physicists, treats the Big Bang as a temporal boundary approximately 13.8 billion years ago, this stance is partly a product of historical momentum and observational successes in explaining phenomena such as the cosmic microwave background (CMB) and light element abundances.³ Yet a substantial minority of researchers propose that what we term the Big Bang may not be an absolute starting point. Instead, they suggest it might be a transition from a previous cosmological era, an event emerging from more primordial conditions, or part of an endless cycle that transcends any single moment of creation.⁴

Central to this re-evaluation are attempts to reconcile general relativity (GR) with quantum mechanics — an effort to understand the universe at the smallest scales and highest energies, where classical physics breaks down. Loop Quantum Cosmology (LQC), derived from Loop Quantum Gravity (LQG), provides one such avenue. LQG posits that spacetime is quantized at the Planck scale, preventing the formation of true singularities.⁵ In LQC, as the universe is traced backward, it does not collapse into a point-like singularity. Instead, it reaches a minimum volume where quantum effects dominate, causing a “Big Bounce” that replaces the singular Big Bang event.⁶ This model envisions an eternal series of expansions and contractions, an ongoing cosmic rhythm that eliminates the need for a finite inception point.

Renowned mathematician and physicist Roger Penrose has advanced Conformal Cyclic Cosmology, a radical departure from traditional perspectives that frames the universe as a succession of infinite aeons.⁷ Each aeon begins with what appears to us as a Big Bang and stretches forward into an exceedingly expanded, smooth state before giving rise to the next aeon through a process known as conformal rescaling. According to CCC, our current universe is just one phase in a timeless succession of cosmic eras, negating the notion of a single beginning and introducing a vision of eternal renewal.⁸ Proponents of CCC have searched for patterns in the CMB — such as Hawking points or circles — that may hint at gravitational influences from previous aeons, thus offering potential observational support for this model.⁹

Other frameworks, like causal set theory, attempt to build the universe from discrete, fundamental elements of spacetime. By positing a granular structure to reality, causal set theory suggests that classical concepts of singularities might be artifacts of continuum models.¹⁰ If confirmed, this approach could allow for an infinite extension of spacetime, removing the necessity of a beginning and further expanding our philosophical and scientific horizons.

The debate around the Big Bang’s status — beginning or transition — exemplifies the intersection of empirical inquiry and philosophical reflection. Many physicists focus on empirical data, mathematical consistency, and testable predictions, while paying less heed to the broader existential implications. Philosophers, meanwhile, emphasize the conceptual clarity needed to determine whether a cosmic boundary truly exists or if the notion of an origin event is a byproduct of human perspectives on time and causality.¹¹

By integrating philosophical reasoning with advanced cosmological models, we move toward a more holistic understanding of the cosmos. Instead of viewing the Big Bang as a singular inception point, we may begin to see it as a feature of an infinite, ever-transforming universe — one without an absolute beginning or end. This interdisciplinary approach opens avenues to deeper insight, challenging us to refine our definitions of existence, time, and reality in light of evolving scientific paradigms.

References

1. Kragh, H., Cosmology and Controversy: The Historical Development of Two Theories of the Universe (Princeton University Press 1999) pp. 176–201.
2. Mersini-Houghton, L. and Vaas, R. (eds.), The Arrows of Time: A Debate in Cosmology (Springer 2012) pp. 45–88.
3. Peebles, P. J. E., Principles of Physical Cosmology (Princeton University Press 1993) ch. 2.
4. Brandenberger, R. and Peter, P., ‘Bouncing Cosmologies: Progress and Problems’ (2017) Foundations of Physics 47, pp. 797–850.
5. Rovelli, C., Quantum Gravity (Cambridge University Press 2004) pp. 281–300.
6. Ashtekar, A. and Singh, P., ‘Loop Quantum Cosmology: A Status Report’ (2011) Classical and Quantum Gravity 28, 213001.
7. Penrose, R., Cycles of Time: An Extraordinary New View of the Universe (Bodley Head 2010).
8. Gurzadyan, V. G. and Penrose, R., ‘Concentric Circles in WMAP Data May Provide Evidence of Violent Pre-Big-Bang Activity’ (2010) arXiv:1011.3706 [astro-ph.CO].
9. Contaldi, C. R., ‘Conformal Cyclic Cosmology: Examples of Evidence and Counter-Evidence’ (2018) Foundations of Physics 48, pp. 1228–1243.
10. Sorkin, R. D., ‘Causal Sets: Discrete Gravity’ in Oriti, D. (ed.), Approaches to Quantum Gravity: Toward a New Understanding of Space, Time and Matter (Cambridge University Press 2009) pp. 26–43.
11. Ellis, G. F. R., ‘Issues in the Philosophy of Cosmology’ in Butterfield, J. and Earman, J. (eds.), Philosophy of Physics (Elsevier 2007) pp. 1183–1285.

Appendix C: Reconciling Isolation and Openness in an Infinite, Eternal Cosmos

In an infinite and eternal cosmos, we face an intriguing duality: on one hand, the universe can be viewed as isolated, having no external “outside” and no exchange of matter or energy with anything beyond itself; on the other hand, it is also fundamentally open, boundlessly extending without strict limitations on size, complexity, or duration.

1. The Cosmos as Isolated

In an infinite and eternal universe, there is no conceptual “outside.” All that exists — space, time, matter, energy, and the laws governing them — is contained within the cosmos itself.¹ This absence of external boundaries ensures that the universe cannot be influenced, created, or delimited by anything beyond it.

Because there is nowhere else for energy or matter to flow, the cosmos may be treated as a self-contained energy reservoir.² While energy might shift between different forms, it never truly leaves the cosmic stage. In this sense, the universe is isolated: it is its own reference system, sustaining its processes without external input or depletion.

Implications of Isolation

• Self-Sufficiency:
  Every phenomenon arises from internal conditions. Star formation, black hole accretion, and the emergence of life are driven by intrinsic cosmic laws rather than external intervention.³
• No Absolute Beginning or End:
  Without an external source to trigger existence, the cosmos need not have a singular inception. Its eternal and uncaused nature follows directly from the absence of an external framing context.⁴
• Universal Interconnectivity:
  All events, however distant, remain part of one continuous system of interactions, transformations, and evolutions. The isolation ensures that the cosmic narrative is wholly self-referential, each part influencing and being influenced by the cosmic whole.⁵

2. The Cosmos as Open

Openness refers to the absence of any finite limits on spatial extent, duration, or complexity. The cosmos extends infinitely in every direction, and given sufficient time, can explore an inexhaustible range of configurations.⁶

In a universe without edges, the question “what lies beyond?” never arises. There is no “beyond” to define a closure. Instead, the universe remains perpetually open to novelty, transformation, and infinite variance.⁷

Consequences of Openness

• Local Diversity:
  Different regions may host radically different conditions — some forming galaxies, others dominated by dark energy, others yet seeing emergent phenomena that defy earlier patterns.
• Endless Fluctuations and Creativity:
  Quantum and thermodynamic fluctuations continue indefinitely, spawning new structures and rearranging matter and energy into previously unexplored configurations.⁸
• Infinite Potential for Evolution:
  Without confinement, the cosmos is free to experiment with an unending spectrum of states, accommodating complexity on all scales and ensuring no final static equilibrium.⁹

3. Reconciling Isolation and Openness

The cosmos is isolated in the sense that it encompasses all existence and interacts with nothing external. Yet it is also open in its endlessness, forever unfolding in unexpected ways.

The universe’s isolation ensures it is an autonomous system not shaped by external causes. Meanwhile, its openness ensures no finite boundary can constrain its transformations. This duality means the universe can be entirely self-defined while remaining inexhaustibly creative.¹⁰

Energy, matter, and information shuffle endlessly within the cosmos, forging complex networks of cause and effect. Without external limitations, these internal interactions never cease, perpetuating cosmic dynamism and preventing any final static state.

4. Implications for the Laws of Physics

The fundamental laws of physics apply everywhere and everywhen, but their consequences vary as local conditions shift over infinite expanses of space and endless stretches of time.¹¹ An isolated cosmos ensures that these laws are truly universal, while openness guarantees that the range of outcomes these laws generate is unbounded.

Isolation assures that emergent phenomena — such as biological life, complex star systems, and exotic astrophysical objects — derive from the cosmos’s internal logic. Openness ensures that such phenomena are not one-off anomalies but integral parts of a boundless tapestry of possibilities that continually evolve and branch out.¹²

5. Philosophical Consequences

In an infinite, evolving cosmos, the quest for understanding has no natural terminus. Every solution generates new questions, and every boundary crossed reveals further expanses of the unknown. Without external limits, the pursuit of knowledge mirrors the cosmos’s own unbounded nature.

Traditional concepts like final endings, ultimate fates, or absolute boundaries lose their significance. A cosmos that is both isolated and open exists outside simplistic dichotomies of beginning and end, inviting us to rethink what it means to seek meaning in a reality that is both self-sustaining and indefinitely generative.¹³

With no external cause or container, the universe’s existence is not contingent. It is, by necessity, eternal and self-consistent. This perspective aligns with philosophical arguments that posit reality’s fundamental nature as requiring no external explanation, affirming an intrinsic rationality that needs no outside source.¹⁴

6. A Boundless, Self-Sustained Cosmos

The dual characterization of the cosmos as both isolated and open enriches our understanding of its infinite complexity, eternal dynamism, and intrinsic creativity. Isolation ensures no external influences or boundaries, while openness guarantees that the universe can forever explore new configurations. This interplay dissolves conventional notions of finitude and determinism. Instead, we encounter a cosmos that is at once complete and yet inexhaustible, a living testament to the boundless potential of existence itself.

References

1. Ellis, G. F. R. and Hawking, S. W., The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time (Cambridge University Press 1973).
2. Carroll, S., From Eternity to Here: The Quest for the Ultimate Theory of Time (Oneworld 2010).
3. Rees, M., Just Six Numbers: The Deep Forces That Shape the Universe (Basic Books 2000).
4. Rescher, N., The Riddle of Existence (University of Pittsburgh Press 1984).
5. Weinberg, S., Cosmology (Oxford University Press 2008).
6. Guth, A. H., ‘Inflationary Universe: A Possible Solution to the Horizon and Flatness Problems’, (1981) Physical Review D, 23(2), pp. 347–356.
7. Peebles, P. J. E., Principles of Physical Cosmology (Princeton University Press 1993).
8. Prigogine, I., From Being to Becoming: Time and Complexity in the Physical Sciences (Freeman 1980).
9. Barrow, J. D., The Infinite Book: A Short Guide to the Boundless, Timeless, and Endless (Vintage 2005).
10. Penrose, R., Cycles of Time: An Extraordinary New View of the Universe (Bodley Head 2010).
11. Rovelli, C., Quantum Gravity (Cambridge University Press 2004).
12. Tegmark, M., Our Mathematical Universe (Knopf 2014).
13. Dyson, F., ‘Time Without End: Physics and Biology in an Open Universe’, (1979) Reviews of Modern Physics, 51(3), pp. 447–460.
14. Aristotle, Metaphysics, trans. Hugh Lawson-Tancred (Penguin 1998).

Apendix D: Formal Logic

A ≠ Not A, and for Not A to exist, it has to be A. Let’s say A means existing, and for non existing to exist it has to be existing; but it is not existing, and therefore it can not exist.

The Law of Identity (A=A) and the Law of Non-Contradiction (A≠Not A) are foundational to logical reasoning.

Non-existence cannot exist without violating fundamental logical principles. This leads to the conclusion that existence is necessary and eternal — a state that cannot be otherwise.

By applying the principle A≠Not A and recognizing that for non-existence to exist it would have to be existence, which it is not, it is shown that non-existence cannot exist. Therefore, existence must always exist.

In regards to the second premise of the second argument — a part cannot be the cause of the whole — for any part of existence to exist, the whole of existence must already be present. A part cannot come into being before the whole it belongs to. If a part of existence, say “Ab,” is suggested as the cause of existence itself (“A”), then existence must have already been present for that part to exist. But if existence was already there, it could not have been created by that part.

This leads to a logical contradiction. To claim that a part of existence caused the whole implies that something existed before existence in order to cause it. This creates a paradox: existence would have to both exist (for the part to exist) and not yet exist (for the whole to be created) at the same time. This violates the Law of Non-Contradiction, which states that something cannot both exist and not exist simultaneously.

Therefore, no part of existence can create the whole, because it depends on the whole already being there. If existence already existed, then it could not have been created. This means that existence is eternal and uncaused, as it cannot be brought into being by any part of itself.

In summary, a part of existence cannot cause the whole because the part presupposes the whole’s existence. If the whole exists for the part to exist, there is no need for the whole to be created. Thus, existence must have always existed, and the idea of a part creating the whole results in a logical contradiction.

Further Reading:

Changism: Change and Time in a Presentist Universe https://sergio-montes-navarro.medium.com/change-and-time-in-a-presentist-universe-3aec919829ae

Changism 2: The Bewitchment of Language in Physics https://sergio-montes-navarro.medium.com/changism-2-the-bewitchment-of-language-in-physics-79acaf69757f

Changism 3: Timeless Eternal Change https://sergio-montes-navarro.medium.com/changism-3-timeless-eternal-change-b87ef0e2780b

Logos: https://sergio-montes-navarro.medium.com/logos-0717f9fb6cde

Existence is necessarily eternal and uncreated — why something instead of nothing: https://sergio-montes-navarro.medium.com/existence-is-necessarily-eternal-and-uncreated-5fe57626a60b

The Bedrock of Being

Existence stands,
a mountain unmoved by tides of thought,
impervious to the pull of origins,
needing no dawn, no whisper of before.
It is breath before lungs awaken,
the endless hum beneath all machinery,
the pulse preceding every heart.

Nothingness — a phantom notion,
a shadow trailing the living,
yet unable to breathe or be.
Even void demands a vessel
to cradle its emptiness.
To not exist requires a stage
where silence takes the lead.

If ever a first beat sounded,
a spark igniting the abyss,
it was kindled by hands
born of this eternal now,
this weight of presence
wearing the face of now,
and now, and now —

Energy cycles,
a ceaseless wheel of flame,
undiminished, ever turning,
a dance beyond decay,
as constant as light across a void
too full to hold nothing.

Thus we unveil a silent truth:
existence needs no herald,
no progenitor or cause
beyond its own relentless pulse.
It simply is —
the lone witness and the multitude,
the stage and the performance,
alpha and omega, forever
without end.